Do freeze-thaw events enhance C andN losses from soils of different ecosystems? A review

Freezing and thawing of soils may affect the turnover of soil organic matter and thus the losses of C and N from soils. Here we review the literature with special focus on: (i) the mechanisms involved, (ii) the effects of freezing temperature and frequency, (iii) the differences between arable soils and soils under natural vegetation, and (iv) the hypothesis that freeze-thaw events lead to significant C and N losses from soils at the annual scale. Changes in microbial biomass and populations, root turnover and soil structure might explain increased gaseous and solute fluxes of C and N following freeze-thaw events, but these mechanisms have seldom been addressed in detail. Effects of freeze-thaw events appear to increase with colder frost temperatures below 0°C, but a threshold value for specific soils and processes cannot be defined. The pool of C and N susceptible to freeze-thaw events is rather limited, as indicated by decreasing losses with shortterm repeated events. Elevated nitrate losses from soils under alpine and/or arctic and forest vegetation occurred only in the year following exceptional soil frost, with greatest reported losses of about 13 kg N ha . Nitrate losses are more likely caused by reduced root uptake rather than by increased N net mineralization. N2O emissions from forest soils often increased after thawing, but this lasted only for a relatively short time (days to 1–2 months), with the greatest reported cumulative N2O emissions of about 2 kg N2O-N ha . The emissions of N2O after freeze-thaw events were in some cases substantially greater from arable soils than from forest soils. Thus, freeze-thaw events might induce gaseous and/or solute losses of N from soils that are relevant at the annual time scale. While a burst of CO2 after thawing of frozen soils is often found, there is strong evidence that, at the annual time scale, freeze-thaw cycles either have little effect or will even reduce soil C losses as compared with unfrozen conditions. On the contrary, a milder winter climate with fewer periods of soil frost may result in greater losses of C from soils that are presently influenced by extended frost periods.